Negro es bello/Black is beautiful by Elizabeth Catlette Mora
Many of the Black Arts Movement’s leading artists, including Ed Bullins, Nikki Giovanni, Woodie King, Haki Madhubuti, Sonia Sanchez, Askia Touré, Marvin X and Val Gray Ward, remain artistically productive today. Its influence can also be seen in the work of later artists, from the writers Toni Morrison, John Edgar Wideman, and August Wilson to actors Avery Brooks, Danny Glover, and Samuel L. Jackson, to hip-hop artists Mos Def, Talib Kweli, and Chuck D.
We congratulate the Peralta Community College District, Merritt College
in particular, as the birth place of the Bay Area Black Cultural
Revolution, including the Black Panther Party, Black Arts and Black
Studies Movements. Merritt gave birth to two Black Panther groups: The
Black Panther Party of Self Defense and the Black Panther Party of
Northern California. Through the Afro American Association meetings at
Merritt ,headed by Donald Warden, aka Khalid Abdullah Tariq Al Mansour,
students gained knowledge of African consciousness. According to AAA
member Ed Howard, Kwanza originated in Oakland. Maulana Ron Karenga was
the Los Angeles representative of the AAA. As per the Black Arts
Movement, Merritt students were key, e.g., Sarah Webster Fabio, Marvin
X, Ellendar Barnes, Ernie Allen, Richard Thorne, Maurice Dawson, Kenny
and Carol Freeman, Ann Williams, Isaac Moore, Adam David Miller and
Marvin X. Merritt had the first Black Studies program in the nation,
although San Francisco State had the first on a major college campus.
Alas, many of the San Francisco State University students involved in
the BSU and Student Third World Strike at SFSU were Peralta College
District transfers.
--Marvin X, A.A., Sociology, Merritt College, 1964
Kaluma ya Salaam on the Black Arts Movement
Both inherently and overtly political in content, the Black Arts
movement was the only American literary movement to advance "social engagement"
as a sine qua non of its aesthetic. The movement broke from the immediate past of protest
and petition (civil rights) literature and dashed forward toward an alternative that
initially seemed unthinkable and unobtainable: Black Power.
In a 1968 essay, "The Black Arts Movement," Larry Neal proclaimed Black Arts
the "aesthetic and spiritual sister of the Black Power concept." As a political
phrase, Black Power had earlier been used by Richard Wright to describe the mid-1950s
emergence of independent African nations. The 1960s' use of the term originated in 1966
with Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee civil rights workers Stokely Carmichael and
Willie Ricks. Quickly adopted in the North, Black Power was associated with a militant
advocacy of armed self-defense, separation from "racist American domination,"
and pride in and assertion of the goodness and beauty of Blackness.
Ishmael Reed, poet, novelist, essayist, playwright, publisher, professor
Although often criticized as sexist, homophobic, and racially exclusive (i.e., reverse
racist), Black Arts was much broader than any of its limitations. Ishmael Reed, who is
considered neither a movement apologist nor advocate ("I wasn't invited to
participate because I was considered an integrationist"), notes in a 1995 interview,
I think what Black Arts did was inspire a whole lot of Black people to write. Moreover,
there would be no multiculturalism movement without Black Arts. Latinos, Asian Americans,
and others all say they began writing as a result of the example of the 1960s. Blacks gave
the example that you don't have to assimilate. You could do your own thing, get into your
own background, your own history, your own tradition and your own culture. I think the
challenge is for cultural sovereignty and Black Arts struck a blow for that.
Ishmael Reed, poet, novelist, essayist, playwright, publisher, professor
The Harlem Renaissance was inspired by the Black consciousness teachings of Marcus Garvey, likewise, The Black Arts Movement was inspired by the Nation of Islam and especially Malcolm X. BAM is considered the genesis of Muslim American literature. BAM is in the long tradition of Black radical writing, especially from the 1829 writings of David Walker. His Appeal is as relevant today as it was in 1829
-- Marvin X
Umar bin Hassan and Abiodun of the Last Poets
Amiri Baraka
art by James Gayles
History and Context. The Black Arts movement, usually referred to as a
"sixties" movement, coalesced in 1965 and broke apart around 1975/1976. In March
1965 following the 21 February assassination of Malcolm X, LeRoi Jones (Amiri Baraka)
moved from Manhattan's Lower East Side (he had already moved away from Greenwich Village)
uptown to Harlem, an exodus considered the symbolic birth of the Black Arts movement.
Jones was a highly visible publisher (Yugen and Floating Bear magazines,
Totem Press), a celebrated poet (Preface to a Twenty-Volume Suicide Note, 1961, and
The Dead Lecturer, 1964), a major music critic (Blues People, 1963), and an
Obie Award-winning playwright (Dutchman, 1964) who, up until that fateful split,
had functioned in an integrated world. Other than James Baldwin, who at that time had been
closely associated with the civil rights movement, Jones was the most respected and most
widely published Black writer of his generation.
While Jones's 1965 move uptown to found the Black Arts Repertory Theatre/School (BARTS)
is the formal beginning (it was Jones who came up with the name "Black Arts"),
Black Arts, as a literary movement, had its roots in groups such as the Umbra Workshop.
Umbra (1962) was a collective of young Black writers based in Manhattan's Lower East Side;
major members were writers Steve Cannon, Tom Dent, Al Haynes, David Henderson, Calvin C.
Hernton, Joe Johnson, Norman Pritchard, Lenox Raphael, Ishmael Reed, Lorenzo Thomas, James
Thompson, Askia M. Touré (Roland Snellings; also a visual artist), Brenda Walcott, and
musician-writer Archie Shepp. Touré, a major shaper of "cultural nationalism,"
directly influenced Jones. Along with Umbra writer Charles Patterson and Charles's
brother, William Patterson, Touré joined Jones, Steve Young, and others at BARTS.
Umbra, which produced Umbra Magazine, was the first post-civil rights Black
literary group to make an impact as radical in the sense of establishing their own voice
distinct from, and sometimes at odds with, the prevailing white literary establishment.
The attempt to merge a Black-oriented activist thrust with a primarily artistic
orientation produced a classic split in Umbra between those who wanted to be activists and
those who thought of themselves as primarily writers, though to some extent all members
shared both views. Black writers have always had to face the issue of whether their work
was primarily political or aesthetic. Moreover, Umbra itself had evolved out of similar
circumstances: In 1960 a Black nationalist literary organization, On Guard for Freedom,
had been founded on the Lower East Side by Calvin Hicks. Its members included Nannie and
Walter Bowe, Harold Cruse (who was then working on Crisis of the Negro Intellectual, 1967),
Tom Dent, Rosa Guy, Joe Johnson, LeRoi Jones, and Sarah Wright, among others. On Guard was
active in a famous protest at the United Nations of the American-sponsored Bay of Pigs
Cuban invasion and was active in support of the Congolese liberation leader Patrice
Lumumba. From On Guard, Dent, Johnson, and Walcott along with Hernton, Henderson, and
Touré established Umbra.
Another formation of Black writers at that time was the Harlem Writers Guild, led by
John O. Killens, which included Maya Angelou, Jean Carey Bond, Rosa Guy, and Sarah Wright
among others. But the Harlem Writers Guild focused on prose, primarily fiction, which did
not have the mass appeal of poetry performed in the dynamic vernacular of the time. Poems
could be built around anthems, chants, and political slogans, and thereby used in
organizing work, which was not generally the case with novels and short stories. Moreover,
the poets could and did publish themselves, whereas greater resources were needed to
publish fiction. That Umbra was primarily poetry- and performance-oriented established a
significant and classic characteristic of the movement's aesthetics.
When Umbra split up, some members, led by Askia Touré and Al Haynes, moved to Harlem
in late 1964 and formed the nationalist-oriented "Uptown Writers Movement,"
which included poets Yusef Rahman, Keorapetse "Willie" Kgositsile from South
Africa, and Larry Neal. Accompanied by young "New Music" musicians, they
performed poetry all over Harlem. Members of this group joined LeRoi Jones in founding
BARTS.
Jones's move to Harlem was short-lived. In December 1965 he returned to his home,
Newark (N.J.), and left BARTS in serious disarray. BARTS failed but the Black Arts center
concept was irrepressible mainly because the Black Arts movement was so closely aligned
with the then-burgeoning Black Power movement.
The mid- to late 1960s was a period of intense revolutionary ferment. Beginning in
1964, rebellions in Harlem and Rochester, New York, initiated four years of long hot
summers. Watts, Detroit, Newark, Cleveland, and many other cities went up in flames,
culminating in nationwide explosions of resentment and anger following Martin Luther King,
Jr.'s April 1968 assassination.
In his seminal 1965 poem "Black Art," which quickly became the major poetic
manifesto of the Black Arts literary movement, Jones declaimed "we want poems that
kill." He was not simply speaking metaphorically. During that period armed
self-defense and slogans such as "Arm yourself or harm yourself' established a social
climate that promoted confrontation with the white power structure, especially the police
(e.g., "Off the pigs"). Indeed, Amiri Baraka (Jones changed his name in 1967)
had been arrested and convicted (later overturned on appeal) on a gun possession charge
during the 1967 Newark rebellion. Additionally, armed struggle was widely viewed as not
only a legitimate, but often as the only effective means of liberation. Black Arts'
dynamism, impact, and effectiveness are a direct result of its partisan nature and
advocacy of artistic and political freedom "by any means necessary." America had
never experienced such a militant artistic movement.
Nathan Hare, the author of The Black Anglo-Saxons (1965), was the founder of
1960s Black Studies. Expelled from Howard University, Hare moved to San Francisco State
University where the battle to establish a Black Studies department was waged during a
five-month strike during the 1968-1969 school year. As with the establishment of Black
Arts, which included a range of forces, there was broad activity in the Bay Area around
Black Studies, including efforts led by poet and professor Sarah Webster Fabio at Merrit
College.
The initial thrust of Black Arts ideological development came from the Revolutionary
Action Movement (RAM), a national organization with a strong presence in New York City.
Both Touré and Neal were members of RAM. After RAM, the major ideological force shaping
the Black Arts movement was the US (as opposed to "them') organization led by Maulana
Karenga. Also ideologically important was Elijah Muhammad's Chicago-based Nation of Islam.
These three formations provided both style and ideological direction for Black Arts
artists, including those who were not members of these or any other political
organization. Although the Black Arts movement is often considered a New York-based
movement, two of its three major forces were located outside New York City.
BAM BAY AREA
As the movement matured, the two major locations of Black Arts' ideological leadership,
particularly for literary work, were California's Bay Area because of Black Dialogue magazine, the Journal of
Black Poetry and the Black Scholar, and the Chicago-Detroit axis because of Negro
Digest/Black World and Third World Press in Chicago, and Broadside Press and Naomi
Long Madgett's Lotus Press in Detroit. The only major Black Arts literary publications to
come out of New York were the short-lived (six issues between 1969 and 1972) Black
Theatre magazine published by the New Lafayette Theatre and Black Dialogue, which
had actually started in San Francisco (1964-1968) and relocated to New York (1969-1972).
In 1967 LeRoi Jones visited Karenga in Los Angeles and became an advocate of Karenga's
philosophy of Kawaida. Kawaida, which produced the "Nguzo Saba" (seven
principles), Kwanzaa, and an emphasis on African names, was a multifaceted, categorized
activist philosophy. Jones also met Bobby Seale and Eldridge Cleaver and worked with a
number of the founding members of the Black Panthers. Additionally, Askia Touré was a
visiting professor at San Francisco State and was to become a leading (and long lasting)
poet as well as, arguably, the most influential poet-professor in the Black Arts movement.
Playwright Ed Bullins and poet Marvin X had established Black Arts West, and Dingane Joe
Goncalves had founded the Journal of Black Poetry (1966). This grouping of Ed
Bullins, Dingane Joe Goncalves, LeRoi Jones, Sonia Sanchez, Askia M. Touré, and Marvin X
became a major nucleus of Black Arts leadership.
BAM BAY AREA
Theory and Practice. The two hallmarks of Black Arts activity were the development
of Black theater groups and Black poetry performances and journals, and both had close
ties to community organizations and issues. Black theaters served as the focus of poetry,
dance, and music performances in addition to formal and ritual drama. Black theaters were
also venues for community meetings, lectures, study groups, and film screenings. The
summer of 1968 issue of Drama Review, a special on Black theater edited by Ed
Bullins, literally became a Black Arts textbook that featured essays and plays by most of
the major movers: Larry Neal, Ben Caldwell, LeRoi Jones, Jimmy Garrett, John O'Neal, Sonia
Sanchez, Marvin X, Ron Milner, Woodie King, Jr., Bill Gunn, Ed Bullins, and Adam David
Miller. Black Arts theater proudly emphasized its activist roots and orientations in
distinct, and often antagonistic, contradiction to traditional theaters, both Black and
white, which were either commercial or strictly artistic in focus.
By 1970 Black Arts theaters and cultural centers were active throughout America. The
New Lafayette Theatre (Bob Macbeth, executive director, and Ed Bullins, writer in
residence) and Barbara Ann Teer's National Black Theatre led the way in New York, Baraka's
Spirit House Movers held forth in Newark and traveled up and down the East Coast. The
Organization of Black American Culture (OBAC) and Val Grey Ward's Kuumba Theatre Company
were leading forces in Chicago, from where emerged a host of writers, artists, and
musicians including the OBAC visual artist collective whose "Wall of Respect"
inspired the national community-based public murals movement and led to the formation of
Afri-Cobra (the African Commune of Bad, Revolutionary Artists). There was David Rambeau's
Concept East and Ron Milner and Woodie King’s Black Arts Midwest, both based in
Detroit. Ron Milner became the Black Arts movement's most enduring playwright and Woodie
King became its leading theater impresario when he moved to New York City. In Los Angeles
there was the Ebony Showcase, Inner City Repertory Company, and the Performing Arts
Society of Los Angeles (PALSA) led by Vantile Whitfield. In San Francisco was the
aforementioned Black Arts West and Black House.
BLKARTSOUTH (led by Tom Dent and Kalamu ya Salaam) was an
outgrowth of the Free Southern Theatre in New Orleans and was instrumental in encouraging
Black theater development across the south from the Theatre of Afro Arts in Miami,
Florida, to Sudan Arts Southwest in Houston, Texas, through an organization called the
Southern Black Cultural Alliance. In addition to formal Black theater repertory companies
in numerous other cities, there were literally hundreds of Black Arts community and campus
theater groups.
A major reason for the widespread dissemination and adoption of Black Arts was the
development of nationally distributed magazines that printed manifestos and critiques in
addition to offering publishing opportunities for a proliferation of young writers.
Whether establishment or independent, Black or white, most literary publications rejected
Black Arts writers. The movement's first literary expressions in the early 1960s came
through two New York-based, nationally distributed magazines, Freedomways and Liberator.
Freedomways, "a journal of the Freedom Movement," backed by leftists, was
receptive to young Black writers. The more important magazine was Dan Watts's Liberator,
which openly aligned itself with both domestic and international revolutionary movements.
Many of the early writings of critical Black Arts voices are found in Liberator. Neither
of these were primarily literary journals.
BAM BAY AREA
The Black Dialogue Magazine brothers, L to R: Aubrey LaBrie, Marvin X, Abdul Sabrey, Al Young,
Arthur Sheridan (founding editor) and Duke Williams
The first major Black Arts literary publication was the California-based Black
Dialogue (1964), edited by Arthur A. Sheridan, Abdul Karim, Edward Spriggs, Aubrey
Labrie, and Marvin Jackmon (Marvin X). Black Dialogue was paralleled by Soulbook
(1964), edited by Mamadou Lumumba (Kenn Freeman) and Bobb Hamilton. Oakland-based Soulbook
was mainly political but included poetry in a section ironically titled "Reject
Notes."
Dingane Joe Goncalves became Black Dialogue's poetry editor and, as more
and more poetry poured in, he conceived of starting the Journal of Black Poetry.
Founded in San Francisco, the first issue was a small magazine with mimeographed pages and
a lithographed cover. Up through the summer of 1975, the Journal published nineteen
issues and grew to over one hundred pages. Publishing a broad range of more than five
hundred poets, its editorial policy was eclectic. Special issues were given to guest
editors who included Ahmed Alhamisi, Don L. Lee (Haki R. Madhubuti), Clarence Major, Larry
Neal, Dudley Randall, Ed Spriggs, Marvin X and Askia Touré. In addition to African Americans,
African, Caribbean, Asian, and other international revolutionary poets were presented.
Dr. Nathan Hare, founding Publisher of the Black Scholar Magazine; first chair of Black Studies at San Francisco State University--considered the Father of Ethnic Studies; sociologist, clinical psychologist, publisher of Black Male/Female Relations. Widely published in BAM journals as well as Jet, Ebony, Sepia, Muhammad Speaks, Final Call.--Marvin X
Founded in 1969 by Nathan Hare and Robert Chrisman, the Black Scholar, "the
first journal of black studies and research in this country," was theoretically
critical. Major African-disasporan and African theorists were represented in its pages. In
a 1995 interview Chrisman attributed much of what exists today to the groundwork laid by
the Black Arts movement:
If we had not had a Black Arts movement in the sixties we certainly wouldn't have had
national Black literary figures like Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Alice Walker, or Toni
Morrison because much more so than the Harlem Renaissance, in which Black artists were
always on the leash of white patrons and publishing houses, the Black Arts movement did it
for itself. What you had was Black people going out nationally, in mass, saying that we
are an independent Black people and this is what we produce.
Godfather of the Black Arts Movement, poet, playwright, essayist, musicologist, organizer, historian
Amiri Baraka, aka LeRoi Jones
Black Fire is the Bible of the Black Arts Movement, edited by Larry Neal and LeRoi Jones, aka Amiri Baraka
Marvin X and the Black Arts Movement Poets Choir & Arkestra will conduct the gala opening of the Bay Area Black Arts Movement 50th Anniversary Celebration at Laney College Art Gallery, Oakland CA, February 7, 2014. There will be an exhibit of inmate art from San Quentin. The exhibit is part of the BAM Isaiah 61 Project, in partnership with the Post News Group.
photo collage by Adam Turner, Oakland Post News Group
The
Black Arts Movement (BAM) occurred during the mid 1960s to 1975. The
activist and writer, Leroi Jones, also known as Amiri Baraka, founded
the movement in Harlem after the assassination of Malcolm X. Jones
also established the Black Arts Repertory Theatre/School (BARTS) as an
outlet for BAM. The movement was considered the artistic sector of the
Black Power Movement. In an essay concerning the Black Arts Movement,
Larry Neal stated that the literary movement was the “Aesthetic and
Spiritual Sister of Black Power”. It was also considered one of the most
influential movements to African American literature due to its ability
to inspire blacks to write. Overall, BAM inspired the creation of Black
Publishing Companies, theaters, journals, magazines and institutions.
The main critiques of the controversial movement by scholars were that
it was sexist, homophobic and racially exclusive.
